Positive strand RNA viruses are replicating in association
with cytoplasmic membranes of infected cells which contains in general not
viral RNA but also the machinery required for genome replication, namely the
RNA dependent RNA Polymerase (RdRp) as well as accessory enzymes such as a
viral RNA helicase. Whilst in most cases the RNA transcription complex (RTC) is
localized and associated with the ER, in some cases the RTC is associated with
the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) (Nodaviridae), the endosome/lysosome
(Togaviridae), or even Peroxisomes and Chloroplasts (Tomboviridae); a special
case are the lipid droplets formed upon Hepatitis C Virus infection, which are
localized to the actin/microtubuli of the cytoskeleton. The replication enzymes
-virus specific- become associated to the respective RTC early in infection
process however not by the viral RNA but by the non-structural proteins (nsp’s)
whose expression is sufficient to induce the formation of membrane structures
which ultimately form the RTC - in other words, the replication proteins are
targeted to the respective organelle by the nsp rather than the viral RNA. In
order to form these structures, most of the nsp’s are integral proteins with
multiple or single transmembrane domains (as in the case of Coronaviral
nsp-3/-4/-6 proteins and Hepatitis C Virus NS4A/NS5A) or are attached to the
membrane via a binding peptide (Semliki Forest virus nsp1).
Examples of Positive Strand RNA viruses inducing rearrangements of cellular membranes |
Coronavirus: Formation of DMV s containing the RTC adjacent to the ER
The RTC of the Coronaviridae consists of double-membrane
vesicles (DMVs) in which the nsps required for the replication of the viral
genome are anchored in addition to the viral genome and -once transcription of
the genome starts- intermediate dsRNA can be detected by in situ hybridization
or EU labeling of nascent newly synthesized RNA. In addition to viral proteins
and viral RNA, the DMVs also contain host derived proteins such as the
previously discussed EDAM1 or RNA binding proteins such as hnRNP, Polypyrimidine
tract-binding protein (PTB), T-cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1), and
TIA-1-related protein (TIAR). RNA binding proteins are believed to be required
to switch from replicating the viral genome to viral transcription by binding
to the transcription regulating sequences; indeed, silencing of PTB has a
negative effect on Coronaviral RNA accumulation but increases viral titer. The
precise mechanism of targeting the viral RNA to sites of DMV formation/RTC
assembly is not known but it has been postulated that the viral Nucleocapsid
protein might be involved since it binds viral RNA and can be detected within
DMVs.
The DMVs itself are derived from the cellular ER and
regularly form a reticulovesicular network of modified ER membranes into which
the viral nsp-3,-4, and -6 are inserted (also referred to as convoluted
membranes) and induce a process known as “membrane zipping” or “membrane
pairing” which is succeeded by the wrapping of membrane cisternae around
cytoplasmic constituents in a process resembling the formation of
autophagosomes or -to be more precise- the formation of EDEMosomes in which the DMV forms a bud which eventually is released from the ER. Similar to the latter, the DMVs
are believed to contain LC3-I although as I pointed out before it might be
possible that the DMVs might be LC3-II positive.
This notion is supported by evidence suggesting that the Coronaviral nsp6 protein can induce the formation of LC3-II positive omegasomes that mature into autophagosomes; the induction of autophagy seems to be dispensable for the replication of SARS-CoV, MHV, and the avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus. If RTCs are also LC3-II positive than one of the question which needs to be answered is how the DMV/RTC escapes degradation - or maybe the answer in the end might be that LC3-II positive cannot be detected precisely because they are unstable and degraded. Since EDEMosomes are normally targeted for degradation in a LC3-II independent manner, the question remains why the EDEMosome-like Coronaviral DMVs are not degraded as well.
This notion is supported by evidence suggesting that the Coronaviral nsp6 protein can induce the formation of LC3-II positive omegasomes that mature into autophagosomes; the induction of autophagy seems to be dispensable for the replication of SARS-CoV, MHV, and the avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus. If RTCs are also LC3-II positive than one of the question which needs to be answered is how the DMV/RTC escapes degradation - or maybe the answer in the end might be that LC3-II positive cannot be detected precisely because they are unstable and degraded. Since EDEMosomes are normally targeted for degradation in a LC3-II independent manner, the question remains why the EDEMosome-like Coronaviral DMVs are not degraded as well.
Further experiments might be worthwhile doing are to investigate if the
DMVs undergo membrane fission in a RabGTPase dependent or independent manner. Here the use of the various RabGTPase mutants
available might give us some answers - again is anybody up to the
challenge? Interestingly, two Coronavirus
nsps, nsp-2 and -3, are located outside of the mature DMV are involved in
inhibiting host cell pathways involving Prohibitin-1 and -, two proteins
involved in modulating transcription as well as in maintaining mitochondrial
function and morphology. It remains to be seen to which extent DMV bound
nsp-2/-3 interferes with these processes.
Hepatitis C Viruses: Role of the NS4B and NS5A proteins
HCV NS4B is a 261 AA long protein, consisting of N- and C-
terminal cytoplasmic domains and a central domain with four transmembrane
helices and localizes to the ER in infected as well as transfected cells,
although a small proportion of NS4B localizes either at the surface of Lipid
droplets (LDs) or ER membranes associated with LDs.
Mutation analysis of full length NS4B showed that
hydrophobic amino acids in amphipathic helix bind to and are critical for
binding LDs and mutation of these residues caused a severe reduction in viral
replication, suggesting that NS4B induced recruitment of LDs is critical for
viral replication.
In contrast to NS4B, the viral NS5A protein has multiple
functions during the replication of HCV. As NS4B, NS5A localizes to the ER,
where it interacts with viral proteases (NS2 and NS3/4A), the viral RdRp (NS5B)
and the NS4B protein as well with the viral RNA (specifically 3’ untranslated
region (UTR) ) and the viral Core protein. In addition, NS5A binds to at least one host cell protein that is found on the surface
of LDs, Tail-Interacting Protein 47 (TIP47) via the N terminal PAT domain of
TIP47, and thus relocalizes LDs to sites of HCV replication. siRNA mediated knockdown of TIP47 or mutations of
NS5A prevent the recruitment of LDs and reduces viral replication whereas
overexpression of TIP47 has the opposite effect, thus highlighting the
importance of LDs for the replication of HCV. Although the function of NS5A and
NS4B with regards to the recruitment of LDs seems to be similar on the first
glance, NS5A binds to TIP47 localized on the surface of LDs followed by
insertion of NS5A into the ER (although contradictory results suggest that only NS5A
bound to viral RNA and/or Core recruits TIP47 positive LDs) by a mechanism that the author
of these lines refers to as “capture”.
So what is the role of TIP47? In non-infected cells, LDs are
lipid storage organelles containing neutral lipids (triacylglycerides and
sterol esters) which are surrounded by a phospholipid monolayer containing a
number of associated proteins, including TIP47 that belongs to the LD
associated Perilipin, ADRP and TIP47 (PAT) family. PAT domain containing
proteins are coating the surface of LDs and involved in the turnover and
stability of LDs. TIP47 is also found on late endosomes to which it is
recruited by Rab9-GTPase which might facilitate the formation of transport
vesicles. If these results stand the test of time, then the recruitment of
TIP47 by NS5A to sites of viral replication might also recruit Rab9-GTPase, or the related Rab5-GTPase, which might be required for the formation of viral particles and trafficking to the endosome, the site of viral egress and released. Indeed,
Rab9-GTPase expression is upregulated in HCV infected cells although NS5A does
induce only a slight relocalisation of Rab9-GTPase suggesting that
endosome-to-Golgi trafficking might be increased, whereas Rab5-GTPase co-localises with both NS5A and NS4B at the ER.
TIP47 was originally described to function in the retrograde vesicular-membrane transport, whereby lysosomal enzymes are delivered to endosomes prior to recycling in the Golgi and thus be involved in the formation of transport vesicles. It seems feasible that this is precisely the role of TIP47 in HCV replication; to allow the transport of new viral particles. Personally I am curious to see if in TIP47 knockout cells transport vesicles are accumulating in the cytoplasm of the cell. It is well known that newly synthesized HCV particles are transported from early to late endosomes and subsequently to the Golgi, so is TIP47 maybe required for this step? Who knows….
TIP47 was originally described to function in the retrograde vesicular-membrane transport, whereby lysosomal enzymes are delivered to endosomes prior to recycling in the Golgi and thus be involved in the formation of transport vesicles. It seems feasible that this is precisely the role of TIP47 in HCV replication; to allow the transport of new viral particles. Personally I am curious to see if in TIP47 knockout cells transport vesicles are accumulating in the cytoplasm of the cell. It is well known that newly synthesized HCV particles are transported from early to late endosomes and subsequently to the Golgi, so is TIP47 maybe required for this step? Who knows….
One final word: the knowledge of the intricate details of the composition of the RTC not only of positive strand RNA viruses but also for DNA viruses, negative strand RNA viruses, or Retroviral agents might lead not only to better understanding of the interactions of viruses with the host cell but also lead to the discovery and development of new antiviral drugs as described for HCV. Until then, however, let us marvel in the wonderful world of viruses and their interactions with the host!
Further reading
Hagemeijer, M., Verheije, M., Ulasli, M., Shaltiel, I., de Vries, L., Reggiori, F., Rottier, P., & de Haan, C. (2009). Dynamics of Coronavirus Replication-Transcription Complexes Journal of Virology, 84 (4), 2134-2149 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01716-09
Knoops, K., Kikkert, M., Worm, S., Zevenhoven-Dobbe, J., van der Meer, Y., Koster, A., Mommaas, A., & Snijder, E. (2008). SARS-Coronavirus Replication Is Supported by a Reticulovesicular Network of Modified Endoplasmic Reticulum PLoS Biology, 6 (9) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0060226
Maier HJ, Hawes PC, Cottam EM, Mantell J, Verkade P, Monaghan P, Wileman T, & Britton P (2013). Infectious bronchitis virus generates spherules from zippered endoplasmic reticulum membranes. mBio, 4 (5) PMID: 24149513
Sola I, Galán C, Mateos-Gómez PA, Palacio L, Zúñiga S, Cruz JL, Almazán F, & Enjuanes L (2011). The polypyrimidine tract-binding protein affects coronavirus RNA accumulation levels and relocalizes viral RNAs to novel cytoplasmic domains different from replication-transcription sites. Journal of virology, 85 (10), 5136-49 PMID: 21411518
Sola I, Mateos-Gomez PA, Almazan F, Zuñiga S, & Enjuanes L (2011). RNA-RNA and RNA-protein interactions in coronavirus replication and transcription. RNA biology, 8 (2), 237-48 PMID: 21378501
Cottam EM, Maier HJ, Manifava M, Vaux LC, Chandra-Schoenfelder P, Gerner W, Britton P, Ktistakis NT, & Wileman T (2011). Coronavirus nsp6 proteins generate autophagosomes from the endoplasmic reticulum via an omegasome intermediate. Autophagy, 7 (11), 1335-47 PMID: 21799305
Maier HJ, & Britton P (2012). Involvement of autophagy in coronavirus replication. Viruses, 4 (12), 3440-51 PMID: 23202545
Verheije MH, Hagemeijer MC, Ulasli M, Reggiori F, Rottier PJ, Masters PS, & de Haan CA (2010). The coronavirus nucleocapsid protein is dynamically associated with the replication-transcription complexes. Journal of virology, 84 (21), 11575-9 PMID: 20739524
Nagy PD, & Pogany J (2011). The dependence of viral RNA replication on co-opted host factors. Nature reviews. Microbiology, 10 (2), 137-49 PMID: 22183253
Egger D, Wölk B, Gosert R, Bianchi L, Blum HE, Moradpour D, & Bienz K (2002). Expression of hepatitis C virus proteins induces distinct membrane alterations including a candidate viral replication complex. Journal of virology, 76 (12), 5974-84 PMID: 12021330
Tanaka T, Kuroda K, Ikeda M, Wakita T, Kato N, & Makishima M (2013). Hepatitis C virus NS4B targets lipid droplets through hydrophobic residues in the amphipathic helices. Journal of lipid research, 54 (4), 881-92 PMID: 23315449
Foster, T., Belyaeva, T., Stonehouse, N., Pearson, A., & Harris, M. (2010). All Three Domains of the Hepatitis C Virus Nonstructural NS5A Protein Contribute to RNA Binding Journal of Virology, 84 (18), 9267-9277 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.00616-10
Vogt DA, Camus G, Herker E, Webster BR, Tsou CL, Greene WC, Yen TS, & Ott M (2013). Lipid droplet-binding protein TIP47 regulates hepatitis C Virus RNA replication through interaction with the viral NS5A protein. PLoS pathogens, 9 (4) PMID: 23593007
Ploen D, Hafirassou ML, Himmelsbach K, Sauter D, Biniossek ML, Weiss TS, Baumert TF, Schuster C, & Hildt E (2013). TIP47 plays a crucial role in the life cycle of hepatitis C virus. Journal of hepatology, 58 (6), 1081-8 PMID: 23354285
Lai CK, Jeng KS, Machida K, & Lai MM (2010). Hepatitis C virus egress and release depend on endosomal trafficking of core protein. Journal of virology, 84 (21), 11590-8 PMID: 20739534
Kohler JJ, Nettles JH, Amblard F, Hurwitz SJ, Bassit L, Stanton RA, Ehteshami M, & Schinazi RF (2014). Approaches to hepatitis C treatment and cure using NS5A inhibitors. Infection and drug resistance, 7, 41-56 PMID: 24623983
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