The
accumulation of viral proteins at the ER during an infection can induce ER
stress as outlined before via three main pathways, PERK, ATF6, and IRE1, which
are commonly refereed to as the unfolded Protein Response (UPR) or ER stress
response. This response results in the transcriptional activation of genes
encoding for ER chaperones, increasing autophagy, or regulating apoptosis.
Coronaviruses
are no exception. Both structural and non-structural proteins localise to the
ER - followed by the formation of Replication Transcription Centers in the case
of non-structural proteins or the co-localisation in ER-Golgi Intermediate
Compartments (ERGIC), the sites of viral genome replication and assembly
respectively.
S (Spike)
protein
The
Coronavirus S protein plays a pivotal role in the entry of the Coronavirus
particle, by mediating receptor binding, membrane fusion as well as eliciting
the formation of neutralising antibodies. newly synthesised S protein
co-localises with the other structural proteins in the ERGIC where viral
assembly takes place. Although the viral assembly site is distinct from the ER,
newly synthesised S protein localises to the ER where the protein is slowly
folded and glycosylated prior release into the cytoplasm of the cell where it
is retained in the ERGIC by a dilysine signal (in the case of IBV S) or a dibasic
signal (KXHXX) (SARS-CoV S, TGEV S); interestingly, the S proteins of BCV and
MHV-A59 both do not contain similar localisation signals. These signals not only localise S to the
ERGIC, but also retain S protein in the cytoplasm instead of being localised to the plasma membrane.
Since the
S is glycosylated and localises to the ER, the viral S protein modulates the ER
stress response. As it the case with the viral E, HCOV-Nl63 orf3, and SARS-CoV
orf3a proteins, S activates PERK, but not ATF6 and IRE1. Similar to these
proteins, the expression of S results in PERK and phosphorylated eIF2α induced
transcriptional activation of intraluminal ER chaperones GRP94/78, thus
facilitating the correct folding and processing of viral proteins inside the
ER. Indeed, the expression of S does not induce CHOP, nor ATF4 or splicing of
XBP1, although in SARS-CoV slightly elevated levels of sXBP1 can be detected
(independent of S). If the latter is required for viral replication since sXBP1
has also chaperone activity or not is not clear.
M
(Membrane protein)
The Coronavirus
M is the main structural component of the virion, its function associated not
only with incorporating the nascent nucleocapsid via interaction with the viral
N protein into the viral particle but also recruiting other viral structural components to the site of viral
assembly. Although the precise topology of the M protein is still disputed, the
consensus is that the three putative transmembrane domains predominantly
localise in the Golgi, as well as in trafficking vesicles, with the N and C
termini are either in a Nexo//Cexo
or Nexo/Cendo
orientation (exo referring to ectodomain, endo to endodomain). In the case of
SARS-CoV M, the protein is N-Glycosylated on the N-terminal ectodomain prior to
insertion into the ERGIC at the ER, with the glycosylation site facing the ER
lumen and thus favoring a Nexo-Cendo
orientation. Consequently, the highly immunogenic C terminus is located inside
the mature virus particle with the less immunogenic N terminus protruding from
the viral surface. This is different from Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus
(TGEV) and the feline Coronavirus (FCoV),
where the M protein adopts not only a Nexo-Cendo
orientation but also a Nexo -
Cexo configuration
with the N- and C-terminus both protruding the viral particle and thus exposing
the C-terminus; indeed, TGEV and FCoV infection induces the formation of highly
specific antibodies targeting the viral M protein. The Nexo-Cendo
orientation not only prevents the formation of antibodies against M but also is
also required for the interaction with the N protein and subsequent recruitment
of the viral positive sense ssRNA to sites of viral assembly. Indeed, in TGEV
virions we find both conformations of M, with the Nexo-Cendo
conformation being predominant.
Membrane topology of M proteins derived from SARS-CoV and TGEV |
Although
the N-glycosylation of SARS-CoV M and the O-glycosylation of MHV M are
dispensable for viral assembly -glycosylation mutants do recruit both the viral
S and N proteins to the ERGIC-, budding, and infectivity, the N-glycosylation
of M might be required to induce antiviral signaling, specifically the
induction of Interferon-α and -β.
Since the
Coronaviral M protein is localised to the ER prior to be transported to the
ERGIC and glycosylated by ER resident enzymes, it might be conceivable to
assume that the expression of M induces the ER stress response by lipid
depletion. So far, however the induction of the UPR has not been reported.
E
(Envelope)
In
addition to the M protein, the coronaviral E protein is also involved in the
formation of viral and virus-like particles and as such localises to the ERGIC,
the viral assembly site located in close proximity to the ER and Golgi. Indeed
if transfected into cells, the SARS-CoV
and PEDV E protein E can be detected both in the ER and the Golgi, although not
in a reticulate pattern but in membrane clusters. In contrast to the viral M or
the SARS-CoV orf3a protein, both the N- and C-Termini of SARS-CoV E are located
on the cytoplasmic side with no lumenal domain, although tin the case for IBV E
a different topology has been reported. In the case of SARS-CoV E protein, this
transmembrane helical hairpin domain might not only be responsible for the
membrane curvature of the viral particle but is also palmitoylated. In contrast
to the M protein, the E protein from both SARS-CoV and PEDV have been shown to
interfere with the ER stress response, albeit the results are contradictory. In
the case of SARS-CoV, the expression of the E protein inhibits the IRE1 pathway
but PERK or ATF6 mediated signalling and thus inhibits apoptosis induced by
IRE1 activation in cells infected with a recombinant SARS-CoVΔE virus or RSV,
as well as in cells treated with thapsigargin or tunicamycin. On the other hand, both the expression of
SARS-CoV and PDEV E activates PERK and PERK mediated expression of pro
inflammatory cytokines such as Interleukin-8 by activating NF-κB as well as
inducing the expression of Bcl2 and thus preventing apoptosis. Indeed cells
infected with rSARS-CoVΔE not only have an increased stress response but also
exhibit a decreased inflammatory response - yet rSARS-CoVΔE is attenuated.
Membrane topology of Coronavirus E proteins derived from SARS-CoV, MHV, and IBV |
SARS-CoV
orf3a/HCoV-NL63 orf3
The
SARS-CoV open reading frame (orf) 3a protein is encoded by one of the so called
“group specific genes” and has no known structural nor sequence homology to any
of the known proteins of other coronaviruses, although it bears some
similarities to the Coronavirus M protein. Similar to the M protein, orf3a has
three transmembrane domains with the same topology as SARS-CoV M, it localizes
predominately to the Golgi and ERGIC, both are structural proteins, both are
glycosylated, and both interact with the viral S and E proteins. In contrast to
M, the three transmembrane domains have been postulated to form an ion channel
with the domain 2 and 3 forming the pore via a cysteine rich domain (AA 81-60)
and the central region (AA 125-200) be required for binding the 5’-UTR of the
SARS-CoV genome. Although both orf3a and M are glycosylated, orf3a is
O-glycosylated postranslationally similar to MHV M whereas SARS-CoV M is
N-Glycosylated cotranslationally.
The
C-terminus contains both the Yxx𝛟 (with x
representing any AA and 𝚽 is a hydrophobic amino acid residue) and the diacidic motifs (ExD, where
x represents any AA). Whilst the Yxx𝛟
domain is required for the localisation of the viral particle to the endosome
during viral entry, the diacidic motif is required for the export from the ER
to the ERGIC/Golgi as well as preventing the retrograde Rab6GTPase dependent
transport from the Golgi to the ER, thus facilitating the accumulation of orf3a
at the plasma membrane. As mentioned in a previous post, the expression of
orf3a has been associated with the induction of the ER stress response through
the activation of the PERK pathway but does not trigger the activation of IRE1
or ATF6 nor the Endoplasmic Reticulum Associated Degradation (ERAD) pathway.
Constitutive activation of PERK by orf3a induces apoptosis through the
expression of ATF4 and CHOP as described before as well as activating p38 MAPK
mediated release of mitochondrial Cytochrome c.
SARS-CoV orf3a and HCoV-NL63 orf3 |
In a
similar way to SARS-CoV orf3a, the HCoV-NL63 orf 3 protein co-localises with
the viral S, M, E, and N proteins within the ERGIC compartment in Huh7 cells
transfected with the respective expression plasmids. In addition, HCoV-NL63 is
N-glycosylated at the ER luminal side. If the expression of HCoV-NL63 induces
the ER stress response however is not known, but the author of these lines
would predict that akin to SARS-CoV orf 3a, HCoV-NL63 orf3 induces the PERK
pathway.
N (Nucleocapsid)
In
contrast to the aforementioned proteins, the Nucleocapsid protein does not
integrate into the membrane of either the virion, the ER, or the ERGIC due to
the absence of a transmembrane domain but binds both the M and E protein (in
addition to nsp3) and in cells infected
with CoV or co-transfected with either M and E respectively, although N is not
required for the formation of virus like particles. Mass spectrometric
characterisation of the SARS-CoV revealed 12 potential glycosylation sites were
identified, suggesting that N is N-glycosylated within the ER co- or
postranslationally. Based on these findings is seems possible that the
expression of N induces a ER stress response although the N protein itself does
not predominantly localise to the ER but both within the cytoplasm and as well
as the nucleolus in infected cells and cells transfected with IBV, MHV,
SARS-CoV, and TGEV N. An exception might be however the PEDV (Porcine Epidemic
Diarrhoea Virus) N protein, which seems to localise to the ER (according to the authors at
least) -I should note that I however profoundly disagree with the authors of the paper
in question about since from the published figures seems to be absent
from the region labeled with ER tracker. In any case, the published data suggest that PEDV N might activate NF-κB
signalling in a similar way to HCoV-OC43 via binding to microRNA9 instead. In
my opinion, it is the glycosylation of N, which might induce the ER stress
pathway instead as indicated by unregulated expression of GRP78, a ER chaperone - a hypothesis that could and should have been tested by
mutating the putative glycosylation sites. In infected cells, the viral nsp-3 protein binds N and thus localises N to the replication complex, as does binding of N to non-glycosylated M. In these cases however, it is not N itself which would cause ER stress, but the respective binding partner, although it might be possible that N excaberates ER stress. The SARS-CoV N protein itself however localises to stress granules upon arsenite treatment which can be inhibited by phosphorylation of a Serine residue via SR protein kinase 1in the C-terminal domain, maybe similar to PEDV N. Indeed, mutating this Serine residue to Alanine stabilises the formation of N containing stress granules. So in the end, it is not clear if the glycosylation of N induces the ER stress response but there is strong evidence that the C-terminal domain is involved in inducing the ER stress response via the formation of protein aggregates in HeLa cells treated with arsenite.
Interestingly, the author of this post did some research in the past where preliminary data suggested that B23 remains nucleolar in the presence of IBV N in contrast to a nucleolar and perinuclear distribution in mock-transfected cells. If this is the case indeed, this could explain how IBV N might interfere with the ER stress response.
Interestingly, the author of this post did some research in the past where preliminary data suggested that B23 remains nucleolar in the presence of IBV N in contrast to a nucleolar and perinuclear distribution in mock-transfected cells. If this is the case indeed, this could explain how IBV N might interfere with the ER stress response.
So what is final conclusion? The expression of coronaviral
structural proteins certainly interferes with the ER stress, but the general
pattern is, that this interference is limited to the PERK pathway and does not
involve the ATF6 or IRE1 response, thus preventing CHOP mediated apoptosis. If
genes related to autophagy are induced remains to be seen; if so, then this
might provide a mechanism to evade apoptosis.
Further reading
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